Artisanal compressor dive fishing
SPMC J Health Care Serv. 2023;9(1):5. ARK: https://n2t.net/ark:/76951/jhcs4ru7a8
1University of the Philippines Mindanao, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines
2Center for Diving, Hyperbaric Medicine and Difficult Wounds, Southern Philippines Medical Center, JP Laurel Avenue, Davao City, Philippines
Correspondence Ma. Arve B Bañez, ArveBanez@gmail.com mbbanez@up.edu.ph
Received 10 February 2023
Accepted 25 May 2023
Cite as Bañez MAB, Ramos JM. Artisanal compressor dive fishing. SPMC J Health Care Serv. 2023;9(1):5. https://n2t.net/ark:/76951/jhcs4ru7a8
Artisanal dive fishing, or the practice by an individual fisher or a small group of fishers to catch aquatic animals through moving underwater, is common in fishing communities all throughout the world.1 There are numerous artisanal dive fishing practices in the Philippines, with the two most common being traditional breath-hold diving (also called mano-mano in Bisaya, apnea diving, free diving, or skin diving) and compressor diving. In breath-hold diving, dive fishers hold their breath while keeping their face beneath the water surface. To see underwater, they usually wear simple wooden goggles (Bisaya: antipara) that are small enough to barely cover and keep seawater from touching the eyes. Breath-hold divers typically explore shallow areas at depths of around 3-4 fathoms, equivalent to approximately 5-7 meters.
Surface-supplied diving involves breathing gas underwater, usually compressed air, through a diver’s umbilical from the surface.2 3 A diver’s umbilical is a composite hose bundle between the diver and the surface, supplying the diver with breathing gas, communications, and/or other services.4 Hookah diving and compressor diving, which are basic forms of surface-supplied diving, use an air-line hose attached to a compressor on the surface. Hookah is a diving equipment frequently used in Australasia.2 The ideal hookah set-up consists of an air compressor, air reserve tank, air hose, air regulator, and a hookah harness or buoyancy control device.5 6 Compressor diving, on the other hand, is an even more basic form of surface-supplied diving. It is usually practiced in the Philippines, Indonesia, and the Caribbean, for artisanal fishing.7 8 9 10 In the Philippines, the diver wears a diving mask (tempered or half mask) that covers the eyes and nose, along with fins or panyapak (typically homemade). Air is supplied to the diver through plastic hoses connected to an improvised air compressor. Because there is no demand valve or mouthpiece, the diver bites the hose end in his mouth.7 The compressor pumps air into the hose, allowing the diver to breathe while underwater. To equalize the pressure inside the mask, the diver exhales through their nose, which releases air and balances the pressure inside the mask. This diving method enables divers to explore depths of 7-8 fathoms, equivalent to approximately 13-15 meters, underwater.7
Lampirong artisanal dive fishers in Oton, Iloilo utilize an improvised compressor diving technology. Air compressors function by drawing in air and pressurizing it within a container. The pressurized air is then released through an opening in the tank, generating pressure. In the context of compressor diving technology, the equipment is often improvised and utilizes repurposed compressors obtained from outdated machines. In some cases, divers may acquire compressors from local hardware stores (Figure 1). A 45-kg liquified petroleum gas tank is recycled to hold compressed air, allowing a lampirong artisanal dive fisher to breathe underwater for up to 45 minutes using this breathing apparatus. Some dive fishers reported staying submerged underwater for up to four hours.7 This kind of compressor usually draws a mixture of gases from the surrounding environment, consisting of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, along with carbon dioxide, water vapor, oil, and other gases.11 Dive fishers also use improvised compressor technology when doing pa’aling, a mass fishing technique practiced in Palawan and performed by up to 25 divers at a time.12 The origin of the modern-day compressor diving equipment dates back to the 17th century with Edmund Halley’s invention of the diving bell used for underwater exploration.13 By the 1820’s, brothers Charles and John Deane invented the standard diving helmet with an attached flexible collar and garment, and successfully performed the first dive using surface-supplied air pumped continuously from the surface.14 15 The practice of compressor diving, as observed among artisanal dive fishers in Oton, Iloilo, can be traced back to the 1970s. During this period, a group of pangayaw (migrant) seasonal dive fishers from Negros Occidental introduced this diving technique to the area.7
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Figure 1 Equipment used in compressor fishing in Oton, Iloilo. A petrol-powered machine (red ring) drives the rotation of the belt (pink arrow), which in turn powers the reciprocating piston (yellow ring). Connected to the piston is an air compressor (green ring) that features a gas line (red arrow). This gas line connects to an air tank (blue ring) consisting of a 45-kg-capacity repurposed liquefied petroleum gas tank. An improvised cylinder (orange arrow) traps and filters the compressed air before releasing it to the hose (white arrow). This hose is utilized by artisanal compressor dive fishers as their breathing apparatus while underwater. (Image source: Ma. Arve B. Bañez, 3 April 2019) |
Active fishing gears, such as pa’aling, purse seines, or trawl nets, are fishing devices that aim to pursue target species.16 17 Muro-ami, another method that uses active fishing gears, employs a pounding device, such as a rock or bamboo, to drive away the fishes from the corals and into the net.18 Muro-ami fishing causes a decline in coral reef cover, resulting in the depletion of fish stocks. This depletion, in turn, leads to the unintended catch of unwanted species and reduces the overall production capacity.19 The utilization of active fishing gear not only contributes to overfishing but also leads to the destruction of marine habitats. In response, the country implemented The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA No. 8550), and later, amended by RA No. 10654, which includes a ban on the use of active gears for fishing practices. However, it also allows LGUs to come up with their own implementing rules and regulations, in consultation with the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council (FARMC).16 20 In Oton, Iloilo, where several dive fishers harvest lampirong, the local government unit has implemented legislation to regulate compressor diving. The ordinances aim to legitimize the use of compressors for lampirong harvesting by requiring divers to obtain barangay clearance and permits—such as diving permits, motorized boat owner/operator permits, buyer's permits, and others—and pay their corresponding fees.21
Compressor dive fishers harvest commercially viable marine resources, such as Capiz shells (Placuna placenta, also called lampirong shells, pios shells),22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 and other tropical marine export commodities, such as pearls, sea cucumbers,30 31 seahorses,32 and ornamental fishes,30 34 35 36 among others. The Philippine capiz shells and shellcraft manufacturing and export industry have consistently contributed to the local economy of fishing communities and to the country's foreign exchange earnings since the 1920s up to the present day.7 22 27 28 37 38 Compressor dive fishers now catch an average of 5 kilograms of fish per day, a huge decline from the average quantity 50 kilograms per day in the 1970s and 1980s. The poor catch stems from decades of neglect brought about by overfishing and destruction of marine habitats.39
Compressor diving is a type of compressed gas diving, similar to recreational SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), commercial, military, and research diving. The physics of gases under hyperbaric conditions apply to all forms of compressed gas diving, and the physical and physiological responses of humans to high-pressure environments are similar. These well-structured diving activities follow comprehensive guidelines based on scientific studies and experience, and modern equipment is used to ensure safety before exposure to high-pressure environments. However, despite the structured training programs and safety measures related to these activities, the risk of diving diseases, particularly decompression illness (DCI) or "the bends," remains inherent. This condition occurs when nitrogen in the blood forms gas bubbles during rapid ascent.
Recent studies have shown that a subset of the population with patent foramen ovale (PFO), a hole between the left and right atria of the heart, may have a higher risk of DCI. PFO is present in approximately 25%-30% of the human population. This means that individuals with PFO should take extra precautions when engaging in compressed gas diving activities to minimize their risk of developing DCI.40
DCI can manifest in a range of signs and symptoms, from subtle ones such as skin rash and fatigue to severe and debilitating ones like paralysis, or even fatal conditions such as cardiovascular, cerebral, and pulmonary DCI. These signs and symptoms can appear immediately upon surfacing or up to 24 hours after a dive. Joint pains are the most common manifestation of DCI.41 It is important to note that DCI can occur even when all manageable risk factors and safety measures in diving have been observed.
Divers are also at risk of experiencing barotrauma, which can affect their body air spaces. Although these are mostly mild and non-life threatening, they can still be debilitating, causing symptoms such as hearing loss, sinus pain, bleeding, dental cavity pain, and gassy abdomen. Equipment barotrauma, such as mask barotrauma, is also possible. However, the most fatal form of barotrauma is pulmonary barotrauma, which can result in cerebral arterial gas embolism and tension pneumothorax. This is more likely to occur in divers with underlying medical conditions, such as asthma attacks that restrict the airways at depth and cause overinflation of the lungs, leading to pulmonary injury (although rare). Some rare bubble diseases can cause swelling of certain body parts, usually the extremities, resulting in a condition called lymphedema, where bubbles lodge in the affected lymphatic vessels. While non-life threatening, this can be deforming. Middle ear barotrauma is the most common type of barotrauma, occurring in 30% of novice divers and 10% of experienced divers.
There is also a risk of marine animal injury. This risk can be fatal in cases where the diver is envenomated by certain poisonous jellyfish, such as the Portuguese man-o-war and blue ring octopus. Nitrogen narcosis is another underwater phenomenon that can impair a diver's decision-making abilities, leading to misjudgment, disorientation, and overconfidence, similar to being under the influence of alcohol (known as the "martini effect").42 Nitrogen narcosis can be relieved by ascending to a shallower depth, but the risk can be fatal if the diver is accidentally entangled underwater. Other risks include loss of gas supply and oxygen toxicity due to unmonitored depth, which can manifest as a seizure. Prolonged exposure to cold water can lead to the development of hypothermia, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a drop in body temperature. In severe cases, hypothermia can result in death.
When it comes to the diving equipment, it is important to consider the risks associated with modified compressors. One of these risks is toxic gas inhalation from the exhaust, which can be especially dangerous when gas filtration is not properly applied or not used at all. Even at safe levels at the surface, toxic gas can be fatal if it doubles, triples, or even quadruples in concentration as the pressure increases at greater depths. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure proper filtration when using compressors to minimize the risk of toxic gas exposure during diving activities.
The compressor breathing apparatus is a critical piece of equipment during diving activities, but it can also contribute to the risk of diving accidents. Malfunctions such as a kinked gas supply hose or a sudden loss of air supply can be debilitating or even fatal if the diver does not respond properly. Compressed gas diving uses air, not oxygen, because oxygen under pressure can be toxic as well. It is important to remember that safe diving practices involve not only proper training but also careful equipment maintenance and inspection to minimize these risks.
The use of modified compressors, lack of proper equipment, and inadequate training increase the likelihood of diving-related injuries compared to modern, well-researched, and properly equipped compressed gas diving techniques. The physiological and physical effects of high-pressure environments, including toxic gas inhalation and marine animal injuries, can be debilitating and even fatal. Yet, discouraging compressor dive fishers from choosing safer fishing practices is a difficult task, despite the well-known risks involved.
There is an increased risk of barotrauma and DCI in divers with hypertension, asthma, pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases, and ear infection.43 44 Traditional dive fishers, especially those that utilize compressors for fishing, are 16 times more at risk of barotrauma than those who do not use compressors. These fishers make use of substandard compressors that are not specifically designed for diving, e.g., air filters that regulate the amount and quality of air that enters the body are absent.43 These divers may also lack protective equipment and adequate knowledge and training on diving safety standards in order to safely dive underwater.
Among artisanal dive fishers, the prevalence of DCI is 20 to 94%.45 In a certain part of Mexico, where sea cucumbers are highly prized, the incidence of at least one DCI event is 84.3% among dive fishers, with a higher occurrence observed among the older population.46 In Indonesia, the prevalence of DCI among dive fishers is lower at 38.1%.47 Locally, as in our experience in the Southern Philippines Medical Center (SPMC) Center for Diving, Hyperbaric Medicine, and Difficult Wounds, we have treated 17 patients who incurred dive-related injuries ranging from mild to severe DCI since 2018. Five out of the 17 patients were compressor divers who suffered severe DCI. From these, three patients had a spinal cord injury which resulted in paralysis, while the two others died from complications of DCI. In Oton, Iloilo, there were two reported cases in 2019, as informed by the community, of dive fishers experiencing generalized numbness (Hiligaynon: balda)—one with and the other without disorientation (Hiligaynon: balong)—after diving. These cases are potentially related to DCI but have not been formally diagnosed.48 To the best of our knowledge, however, there is no consolidated data on the incidence of DCI and other dive-related injuries among fisherfolk in the Philippines.
In the Philippines, there are 20 hyperbaric facilities dedicated to providing immediate treatment for patients with DCI. Most government hospitals in various provinces are capable of delivering first aid services for diving injuries and accidents. However, there are currently no specialized facilities in the country that focus on its treatment. These injuries are typically managed at the nearest health facility, with only standard first aid treatment available. The Bantay Dagat Task Force is a community-based patrol force composed of fisherfolk volunteers. Its primary responsibility is to prevent illegal fishing activities in coastal waters. The task force was established in accordance with RA 8550, as directed by the FARMC, which extends its influence from the national level down to the barangay level of each city/municipality. The members of the task force are locally selected by the Municipal Agricultural Office, while at the national level, the selection is done by the Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.49 In recent years, the capabilities of the task force have been enhanced to include disaster response and marine resources management.50 51 However, they have not been trained to assess and provide preliminary intervention on diving accidents or injuries.
Compressor fishing is dangerous to marine life and the divers. It also contributes to overfishing. Despite the presence of laws and regulations at the local and national levels, compressor fishing remains prevalent, particularly in areas where these laws are not effectively implemented or enforcement is weak.18 In spite of the health and legal risks involved, compressor dive fishers persist in engaging in this practice due to practical reasons. Compressor fishing not only provides them with food for daily sustenance but also serves as a primary or supplementary source of livelihood. Therefore, in municipalities where compressor fishing is regulated and the local government also benefits from the trade of high commercial value marine organisms, it is crucial to provide fisherfolk with training on basic diving safety knowledge. They should be equipped with the ability to recognize signs and symptoms associated with dive-related accidents and injuries. Additionally, it is essential to ensure the availability of adequate and accessible healthcare services that address the well-being of coastal communities, particularly the dive fishers who are exposed to various risks. By adhering to an ecological public health principle, we can prioritize the well-being of Filipino fishers and the conservation of coastal and marine ecosystems in our pursuit of sustainable development. This approach ensures a harmonious balance between the health and welfare of the fishing communities and the preservation of our valuable natural resources.
Contributors
MABB and JMR conceptualized the article. MABB and JMR wrote the original draft, and performed the subsequent revisions. Both authors have agreed to be accountable for all aspects of this report.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the following for their invaluable contributions to this writing project:
The LGU of Oton, especially the town Mayor Atty Carina V. Flores, and Trapiche Barangay Captain Jorge H Mediodia, and Botong Barangay Captain Rehum F Torre, for their support to MABB during fieldwork—without or despite the COVID-19 pandemic—for the research on which this article was built.
Dr Cynthia N Zayas of the International Studies Centre of the University of the Philippines Diliman, for sharing important secondary sources on the diving history in Panay and the Philippines.
Dr Rosalinda C Tomas, Dr Marlina C Lacuesta, Dr Efren P Sabado, and Dr Jerome A Serrano, MABB's dissertation mentor from the School of Arts and Sciences Graduate Program Office of the Ateneo de Davao University, for their contributions to the dissertation on which this article was built.
Dr Rosa Cordillera Castillo and Dr Maria Mangahas for sharing reading materials on topics about the community of compressor fishers and Southeast Asian anthropologies, respectively, which we used as guides in coming up with this article.
Article source
Commissioned
Peer review
External
Competing interests
None declared
Access and license
This is an Open Access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, which allows others to share and adapt the work, provided that derivative works bear appropriate citation to this original work and are not used for commercial purposes. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.
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Copyright © 2023 MAB Bañez, et al.
Published
June 23, 2023
Issue
Volume 9 Issue 1 (2023)
Section
Health care focus
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